Humanities Journal of University of Zakho

BEYOND CONSOLIDATING POWER: THE LOGIC AND ADAPTABILITY OF POLITICAL PURGES IN STALIN’S SOVIET UNION, SADDAM’S IRAQ, AND THE ASSAD’S SYRIA

Soran Tarkhani — Tue, 18 Nov 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This study analyzes the role of purges as systemic mechanisms of governance within Stalin’s Soviet Union, Saddam Hussein’s Iraq, and Assad’s Syria. While commonly perceived as instruments for power consolidation, this paper argues that purges extend beyond tactical purposes to function as institutionalized practices. These mechanisms enforced elite loyalty, restructured power dynamics, and suppressed dissent, serving as adaptive strategies for authoritarian resilience. The analysis identifies shared patterns, such as a dual-phase structure targeting external threats before focusing on internal rivals, while also exploring ideological, structural, and personalist dimensions. Despite ideological differences—Marxist-Leninist revolution in Stalin’s USSR, Ba’athist Arab nationalism in Iraq, and sectarian authoritarianism in Syria—the study reveals a universal adaptability of purges to the vulnerabilities of authoritarian regimes. Using Wintrobe’s (1998) concept of the “fear equilibrium” and Tilly’s (2003) theory of institutionalized violence, this comparative framework advances the understanding of authoritarian resilience and the strategic role of violence in state control.

ECONOMIC LIFE IN THE KURDISH COUNTRY IN GREEK BOOKS (480-21 BC)

Jotyar S. Ali, Rebar J. Ahmmed — Thu, 18 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Classical sources are considered significant for the history of Kurdistan, particularly in the economic aspect, The economy has been a crucial factor in Kurdish life since the first millennium B.C., with the people of Kurdistan engaged in agriculture, industry, and livestock farming. Additionally, Kurdistan’s wealth in natural resources and dense forests contributed to its economic strength. These factors played a key role in the development of trade. Moreover, Kurdistan’s richness was a major reason for numerous external attacks throughout different periods in history.

THE ACHAEMENID ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM IN EGYPT DURING THE REIGN OF DARIUS 1 (522-486 BC)

Siraj A.Alio, Hivi S. Jameel — Sun, 21 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

In the mid-sixth century BC, the Achaemenid Persians came to power, bringing about major changes in the Middle East. They destroyed the Median state in 550 BC and established a new state. Their early kings, such as Cyrus II and his son Cambyses, pursued a policy of expanding the state's borders, and soon this new state was able to expand the country's borders, and the states of Lydia, Babylon, and later Egypt became part of this state. The Achaemenids ruled Egypt for 132 years in two phases. The first phase (525-402 BC) established the 27th dynasty in the country, and the second phase (342-332 BC) established the 31st dynasty under Artaxerxes III. According to Herodotus, this country was appointed as the sixth satrap. Egypt was important due to its geographical location and the presence of the Nile River, the variety of agricultural products, and the Achaemenid kings, especially Darius I, who wanted to dominate Egypt for trade between the East and the West, and hence, this country was of particular importance to the state. Therefore, the Achaemenid kings, one after another, intended to seize this country. This article is based on archaeological observations and recent historical research on the changes in administrative, economic, and social structures in Egypt during Persian rule and the impact of these two civilizations on each other.

POLITICAL AND NATIONAL RESISTANCE IN THE KURDISH NOVELS WRITTEN IN THE MOUNTAINS (1976–1991)

Amina Z. Saeed, Fouad Rashid — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Kurdish novels that written in the mountains, particularly those published during the period of the Gulan Revolution (1976–1991), constitutes a critical narrative space wherein the socio-political realities of Kurdish society are represented and reimagined. These works emerge as intentional interventions by Kurdish intellectuals and writers seeking to engage in the liberation movement of Kurdistan by employing literature as a tool for political expression and national awakening. The novels serve not only as literary artifacts but as mediums for disseminating nationalist ideology and reinforcing collective identity. This study applies Miroslav Hroch theoretical framework to explore the intersection of political resistance and national identity within these novels. It investigates how textual structures and symbolic language articulate resistance, construct meaning, and challenge hegemonic discourses—particularly those that utilized religion as a mechanism for undermining Kurdish identity. In contrast, the discourse of the Kurdish political movement centered on promoting solidarity among Kurds, Arabs, Persians, and Turks, while simultaneously emphasizing national unity and cultural resilience. In the result of research contribute to the defense of the homeland through literary representation, aiming to revive cultural memory, enhance popular consciousness, and cultivate a culture of reading and national cohesion. The study further argues that these narratives function as vehicles for awakening the Kurdish national spirit, stimulating political awareness, and promoting resistance-oriented discourse as a means of social and political transformation.

SAMAND SIYABANDOV THE KURDISH SOVIET COLONEL - HERO OF STALINGRAD 1909-1989

Mehvan M. Hussain — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The participation in the military of the Kurds in World War II 1939-1945 is a controversial issue, therefore the research tries to expose the role of one of the most important Kurdish soviet characters’, who had great roles in the Soviet Union army. When faced with the German army attacks on soviet land during 1941-1945, in addition, had a role in Kurdistan Iran with a soviet army in Iran and made connections with the Kurdish movement leaders, and thus recognized his attitude towards the Kurdish issue, this paper researched discover Kurdish soviet citizen roles for defenses to soviet union country through world war II. This research aimed to study two essential sections. First, samand Sibandov effects in the Soviet Union's defenses against the Nazis army during attacks, as a result, he became trustworthy to soviet leaders therefore, he was chosen to lead the military squad, and basic in his role in many battles and his amazing military leadership in world war II especially in Stalingrad battle 1942-1943 he awards many decorations during his military service as well as name a Stalingrad hero. The second section of the study is dedicated to the relationship and samand sibandov attitude towards the Kurdish issue as well as his connection with Kurdish leadership in Iraq and Iran, the research studies Samand's position towards the Kurdish movement did he make an effort or tries to changing soviet union attitude about Kurdish issue? in addition, did he establish relationships between the Kurdish leaders in Iraq especially Mall Mustapha Barzani, and the soviet union leaders politicians, and military leadership soviet in north Iran? The interesting issue is the Kurdish contemporary references don’t realize samand sibandove belongs to the Kurdish nation therefore this couldn't elaborate his attitude towards the Kurdish movement as well as the relationship with the Kurdish leader’s politician but in contrast, he has a good attitude. therefore, this research academically spends effort to analyze this character's attitude through specific details.

A COMPARİSON BETWEEN HAİKU, POETRY POSTERS AND SE-KHESHTI İN KURDİSH POETRY İN SOUTH AND EAST KURDİSTAN

Dilkhwaz Sh. Mohammed, Halima Kh. Abdullah — Wed, 31 Dec 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Short poetry is one of the most important means of expression in world literature, the brevity of the poem and the depth of its meanings attract readers Short poetry in Kurdish literature has a long history. Some of the styles of short poetry are as follows: the single verse, the dubayt and the quatrain. etc. The demand for these poetic styles continues to this day, and many poets are still interested in these poems, albeit with a modern approach. From this standpoint, this research(A comparison between Haiku, Poetry Posters and Se-Kheshtı in Kurdish Poetry in South and East Kurdistan) is based on a comparison between three different forms of poems: haiku, Poetry Posters and Se-Kheshtı in Kurdish poetry. Based on the texts of a group of poets, the research aims to understand the world of meanings, connotations, structure, and specific form of each type of poem and to state its results. Taking into account the haiku poem's intermingling with different types of literature, this research will focus on the similarities and differences between them. To better clarify this issue, we will shed light on each of the three forms of poems we have identified, and answer some questions: Does each have its own culture and philosophy? And how can we distinguish between haiku and other forms of short poems? Based on these hypothetical questions, we reached a number of conclusions that highlight the differences and commonalities between these types of short poetry. The results of this research demonstrate that each of the haiku, Poetry Posters and Se-Kheshtı has its own distinct culture and philosophy. Although brevity is a common feature among the three poetic genres, haiku differs from the other two in that the poet must be neutral in conveying images and refrain from expressing his feelings indirectly.