Humanities Journal of University of Zakho

THE ASSYRIAN ORAL HERITAGE TREASURES: RAWE AS AN ORAL SINGING

Susan Yousif Qasreita, Efrem Yildiz Sadak — Mon, 18 May 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study examines the early beginnings of unwritten Assyrian literature, which originally emerged as temple prayers and hymns expressing worship and supplication to the gods. This heritage was transmitted orally across generations, preserving its folkloric character outside the realm of formal written culture, and later developed into songs that were performed during celebrations and social gatherings. The traditional singing known as Rawe represents the most prominent examples of this heritage, and it remains preserved among Assyrians in the regions of Tkhuma, Tiyari, and Barwar. This singing offers important insights into the social and emotional life of Assyrians in the mountains of Ashur, reflecting linguistic and experiential dimensions deeply rooted in their identity and history. Although Rawe is often narrowly viewed as purely emotional singing, it fundamentally encompasses deeper literary significance. It addresses themes such as courage and manhood, the relationship with nature, longing for a lost homeland, and the experiences of exile and nostalgia. Through concise, rhymed couplets, villagers were able to express profound thoughts and emotions with clarity and brevity. Rawe continues to represent an essential artistic and cultural form, and its preservation and transmission remain vital. It is also noteworthy that Rawe shares similarities with the folk singing traditions of other peoples, such as the south of Iraq singing called ‘Darmi’ and the Japanese ‘Hiko’ alongside the interest shown by foreign researchers in studying it and making comparison between their own cultural singing and Rawe. This study aims to shed light on this traditional form of singing and to help protect this unique heritage from disappearance through its documentation and analysis, ensuring that it remains a shining symbol within Assyrian cultural heritage. Using a qualitative method, this research analyzed a large number of Rawe verses recited by ten individuals aged between 50 and 70 who live in Duhok and the Kurdistan Region. Approximately 700 Assyrian verses were collected from these participants. The findings indicate that Rawe verses are not merely love poems; rather, they vary in their themes and contexts, extending to expressions of nostalgia for the homeland, courage, and the description of the beauty of nature.

TECHNOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA (2003-2023)

Nazdar A. Brindar, Jivan N. Haji — Mon, 18 May 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Haiku is an ancient japanese poetic style that emphasizes the representation of nature and the depiction of life. The origins trace back to the renowned Japanese poet Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694); However, its compositional principles derive from renga poems and several other concise literary forms that influenced its structure. This structure established the basis for the creation of concise poetry globally. This research, named "Techniques Of Scene Depiction In The Haiku of the Bahdinan region (2003–2023)," aims to elucidate the strategies of scene description in the Haiku from the Bahdinan region. It underscores the degree to which Haiku poets have effectively utilized these approaches in their works. Poetic composition operates within two realms: form and content. This research examines the structure of the poetry. The poem's structure is categorized into two types: lengthy and concise. kurdish poetry has undergone several phases throughout history, each characterized by unique attributes.This study elucidates the structure of Haiku poetry in the Bahdinan region from 2003 to 2023 by studying works from five Haiku writers over this timeframe. The objective is to identify the approaches of scene representation employed in their Haiku compositions to construct their poems and to extract their aesthetic and semantic qualities. The research begins with a definition of the concept of Haiku, its Japanese origins, and its distinctive features, before moving on to discuss the techniques of scene depiction. In conclusion, the study arrives at several findings, the most significant of which is that while these techniques have indeed been applied in the poets’ works, some of them have not fully mastered the Haiku form, its features, and its techniques.

ANALYZING THE RHYTHM OF NARRATION IN THE MAIN INTRODUCTION OF 'MEM AND ZIN' BY AHMAD KHANI ACCORDING TO GÉRARD GENETTE'S CONCEPT OF TIME

Dilman Khalid Yousef, Payman Mohammed Omar — Mon, 08 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study, titled "Analyzing the Rhythm of Narration in the Main Introduction of 'Mem and Zin' by Ahmad Khani According to Gérard Genette's Concept of Time," is a comprehensive analysis of the narrative rhythm in the main introduction of Ahmad Khani's masterpiece "Mem and Zin," relying on Gérard Genette's theory of "time." The main objective is to identify the narrative rhythms (fast and slow) in the introduction of "Mem and Zin," especially the dominant rhythm that Khani used to build the foundation of the epic. The study investigates the factors and effects of using these rhythms to convey profound messages. The descriptive-analytical method has been used, and the analysis will be conducted according to Gérard Genette's theory of "time." The scope of the study is limited to the main introduction of Khani's "Mem and Zin," with its introductory poems taken as the primary material for practical application. The study attempts to answer several hypotheses, such as: How and where does the main introduction of the epic begin and end? Which technique did Khani use more frequently? Did it lead to the identification of a specific type of rhythm ("fast or slow") as the main rhythm in the main introduction? The results obtained in this study are: In the main introduction, which begins with "In the name of God" and extends to "The Introduction of Mem," Khani constructs the world of the story in a descriptive and lengthy manner. Khani utilized both fast and slow rhythms; especially the use of slow rhythm and the technique of descriptive pauses. This slow rhythm and descriptive style, mean that, the dominant rhythm is the slow rhythm. Builds the story's world, introduces characters and relationships, and prepares the reader for major and future events.

THE LANGUAGE OF THE MYSTICAL NOVEL: A CASE STUDY OF MAWT SAGHEER BY MOHAMMED HASSAN ALWAN

Kawthar Muhammed Ali Jabara — Tue, 09 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This research examines the narrative language of mystical novels، raising key questions: starting with what defines a mystical novel? Is it historical fiction or a distinct narrative style? Does it have a unique language that differentiates it from contemporary Arabic novels? How is this language structured، and does it vary in the novel itself between the dialogue and the narration language? The study uses Mawt Sagheer (A Small Death) by Saudi novelist Mohammed Hassan Alwan as a case study to address these questions. While acknowledging the contributions of Moroccan scholar and novelist Dr. Abdelilah Ben Arafa، a pioneer of mystical narration، this research focuses on Mawt Sagheer due to the lack of prior studies on it، unlike the widely analyzed works of Dr. Ben Arafa. The research employs a structural narrative approach and is divided into three sections: The first section was theoretically entitled (“The Mystical Novel: Concept and Beginnings” The second section dealt with ، “The Language of Mystical Narration and its Characteristics” ، and the last one is an analytical study entitled “Mystical Language in Mawt Sagheer.” It is worth mentioning that, this study is part of a broader series of studies on the relationship between the Arabic novels and the Arab history and Arab-Islamic mysticism، providing insights into how mystical language shapes narrative fiction

THE OPPOSITIONAL BINARIES IN THE POETRY OF IBN AL-ABBĀR AL-BALANSĪ – “YOUTH AND OLD AGE” AS A MODEL

Andera B. Nasradin; Mohammad A. Hussein — Thu, 11 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The poet is a sensitive being, easily affected, expressing emotions through harmonized words and phrases adorned with the vibrations of his soul and the stirrings of his feelings. Poetry for the most part, is lyrical, painting with words the depths of the Arab individual, filled with accumulated experiences and emotions resulting from both individual and collective suffering throughout time, life, and society. These include joy and sorrow, bliss and pain, wealth and poverty, stability and loss, love and hatred… and other such contradictions experienced by every human being. A close reading of Ibn al-Abbār al-Balansī’s poetry reveals a clear manifestation of oppositional binaries within his poems, carrying deep connotations that reflect a life filled with hardships, travels, challenges, and betrayals — whether in the psychological, intellectual, or social realms. He employs these realities through polar oppositions: sadness/joy, good/evil, truth/falsehood, light/darkness, love/hatred, dignity/humiliation, compassion/cruelty. His poetry also embodies bravery/cowardice, hope/despair, and fear/security. Through this, he expresses a longing for knowledge and a passion for politics, distinguishing himself in his poetic craft. His works offer rich aesthetic dimensions and fruitful semantic variety, granting his poetry unique artistic layers and profound philosophical visions that reflect existential anxiety. This is achieved through the active presence of cultural patterns that reveal the hidden and bring forth the concealed. Therefore, this study will undertake a careful analysis of the binary opposition of youth and old age in his poetic texts, uncovering the underlying meanings behind this duality in its various dimensions — meanings that stirred within the poet feelings of fear and, at times, sorrow about the fate that awaits all who cherish life and hold long hopes within themselves.

THE TRANSLATION OF ENGLISH POLITE REQUESTS INTO BAHDINI KURDISH

Dara Ahmed Mohammed; Ahmed Hayder Sigar — Thu, 11 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Politeness refers to the social norms and behaviours that imply respect, consideration and courtesy towards others. The current study investigates the translation of polite requests as speech acts from English into Kurdish. Focusing on the challenge of translating pragmatic meaning, it aims at identifying the different patterns of polite requests in English, translating these patterns from English into Kurdish to see how they are realized in Kurdish and shedding light on the points of similarity and difference between the English constructions and their realizations in Kurdish. In order to achieve the aims, the study hypothesizes that: (1) there is no one-to-one correspondence between the structures of polite requests in English and their realization in Kurdish. (2) Kurdish makes use of markers of polite requests more than English does. (3) The illocutionary force of English polite requests the intended effect or function of the utterance can be translated in case the communicative translation is exploited. To test these hypotheses, the study adopts a qualitative research methodology utilizing Newmark’s (1988) approach to translation in terms of his distinction between semantic translation (word-for-word accuracy) and communicative translation (contextual and cultural effectiveness), as a framework to analyse 10 polite requests in English translated by 10 fourth-year students at the Dept. of Translation-College of Languages, University of Duhok. Translation Failure is also taken into consideration which is a text where the message transfer is inaccurate due to significant linguistic or pragmatic errors. The study concludes that polite markers which give the utterances the force of polite requests in Kurdish are more than those in English. Moreover, the differences in percentage, (79% semantic) and (17% communicative) and (4% failure) highlight that there is no one-to-one correspondence between the structures of polite requests in English and their realization in Kurdish

AUTONOMY OF IRAQI KURDISTAN IN A HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS: AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF THE IRANIAN NEWSPAPER KAYHAN REPORTS IN 1963

Fakhir Hassan Yousif — Mon, 15 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Following the overthrow of the Iraqi monarchy in July 1958 and the establishment of the Republic, Iraq experienced significant internal political transformations. Among the most prominent developments was the Kurdish movement’s demand for autonomy and the right to self-determination. Although Kurdish efforts to achieve autonomy had already begun within the framework of the Iraqi state, these efforts gained substantial momentum after 1958. Under the leadership of Mullah Mustafa Barzani and the Kurdistan Democratic Party, the Kurds intensified their struggle for autonomy, and this movement continued until 1963.

This study analyzes the issue of Iraqi Kurdistan’s autonomy through reports and news, which being published in the Iranian newspaper Kayhan. By tracking the reactions that the newspaper observed regarding Kurdish demand. It examines the reactions of the Iraqi central government as well as the reaction of number of regional and international countries such as: Egypt and the Soviet Union, to Kurdish demands. The study addresses the political and military conflict that took place between the Kurdish movement and the central Iraqi government during that period.

This study focuses on news reports published in Kayhan during May, June, and July 1963, using a descriptive-analytical approach. Data were collected from multiple sources, with primary emphasis on the Kayhan newspaper’s reports and content relevant to Kurdish autonomy

SOCIAL MATURITY AND THE MARRIAGE OF AISHA BINT ABU BAKR (D. 58 AH / 678 AD): A SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY IN THE CONTEXT OF THE PRE-ISLAMIC AND EARLY ISLAMIC ERAS

Jotyar Tamur Sedeeq — Mon, 15 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study focuses on the phenomenon of the marriage of ʿĀʾisha bint Abī Bakr within a historical-sociological framework, drawing upon conceptions from the philosophy of history, which regard social phenomena as the outcome of a complex interplay between social structures, collective imagination, and cultural representations. According to this view, an event can only be fully understood in light of the context in which it emerged, requiring a departure from present-day moral standards in favor of exploring the cognitive and value systems that governed collective and individual behavior in their original historical settings. The central problem of the study lies in questioning whether ʿĀʾisha’s marriage represents a continuation of the early marriage patterns prevailing in pre-Islamic Arab society, or whether it has undergone religious and historical reinterpretation within various authoritative and epistemological frameworks. The study adopts a sociological-analytical methodology, drawing on structural-functional approaches and the classical theories of Émile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, and Pierre Bourdieu to examine the relationship between social structure and individual behavior. This requires a systematic distinction between “marriage as a text” and “marriage as a reality,” that is, the necessity of the chapter to separate the rulings stipulated by legitimacy texts from the practices imposed by social contexts. and that requires working on the historical layers of the text and context, the study entitled (Social Maturity and the Marriage of Aisha bint Abi Bakr (d. 58 AH/678 AD)), is a sociological study in a modern context (pre-Islamic and early Islamic) consisting of two sections. The first section tackles the concept of social maturity, the patterns of marriage in Arab society before Islam, and what was approved in Islam briefly, with a concise presentation of the early biography of Aisha bint Abi Bakr and the controversy of her age of marriage as mentioned in historical and jurisprudential sources. While the second section discusses the early marriage issue within its historical context and analyzes it sociologically in light of the prevailing value structures at that time.

(AL-TAHRIRAT AL-MANAWIYA ON AL-RISALAH AL-DALAJIYAH) BY SHEIKH TAJ AL-DIN AL-MANAWI, IN THE SCIENCE OF HADITH

Naaman Ibrahim Ahmed, Izadeen Hassan Jameel — Mon, 15 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0000

(Al-Tahrirat Al-Manawiya on Al-Risalah Al-Dalajiyah) by Sheikh Taj al-Din al-Manawi, in the Science of Hadith. This message is an investigative study in the science of hadith and the terminology related to it. It is entitled (Altahrirat Almanawiah on Al-Risalah Al-Daljiyyah), by its author Sheikh Taj al-Din Ibn al-Manawi - may God Almighty have mercy on him - and this is a singular and unique individualistic script, which is an explanation on (Al-Risalah Al-Daljiyah) by Sheikh Muhammad bin Muhammad Al-Dalji - may God Almighty have mercy on him - and Sheikh Taj Al-Din explained it in a detailed and comprehensive manner, in a way that gives the message its due, explains the solution to its problems, and makes it easy to understand its objectives. The study aims to explain terms that are related to the science of hadith, and that are used by specialized scholars in the science of hadith. It also aims to include hadiths related to these terms to clarify them for beginners and those who are unfamiliar with their meanings. All of this is done carefully to include the differences of the skilled scholars and their statements on this subject, and interestingly to clarify their responses to each other on some issues. The Sheikh - may God Almighty have mercy on him -, he relied on reliable and trustworthy sources and references of the modern scholars in explaining the Daljiyah message, such as: Ibn al-Salah, Ibn Hajar, and his father Sheikh Abdul-Ra’uf al-Manawi - may God Almighty have mercy on them - and other imams of the science of hadith. He did not stop at this point, but rather the Sheikh - may God Almighty have mercy on him - clarified in his explanation the opinions of the scholars on judging on some hadiths, such as authenticity, weakness, and other levels of hadith, and a statement of the principles and rules of correcting and criticizing men. Also, the Sheikh - may God Almighty have mercy on him - added valuable notes in some of the chapters, which have great benefits. I wanted to verify this manuscript, God Almighty willing, to enrich the Islamic library with it in terms of knowledge of the science of hadith.

WRITTEN CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK IN EFL WRITING: GENDER-BASED PREFERENCES AND PERCEPTIONS OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

Shoresh Jelal Hussein , Idrees Ali Hasan — Wed, 17 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Despite the extensive research on Written Corrective Feedback (WCF) among EFL students, limited attention has been given to how gender may shape learners’ perceptions and preferences regarding feedback in academic writing within the Kurdish context. The present study investigates the gender-based beliefs and preferences of Kurdish EFL university students toward WCF in academic writing. This study aims to fill this gap by examining how male and female students perceive various WCF approaches and how these perceptions influence their paragraph writing development. A quantitative approach was adapted for the study, which involved 60 second-year students from the English Department at the University of Zakho, College of Humanities, during the academic year 2024–2025. A 14-item Likert-scale questionnaire was used, and the data were analyzed using the Statistical Package of Social Science (SPSS) version 25, applying descriptive statistics, independent samples t-tests, and Cronbach’s Alpha to analyze the reliability of the questionnaire items. Findings indicated that both male and female students viewed WCF as helpful to enrich their motivation, awareness of error, and writing skills. However, statistical gender effects emerged in emotional responses and feedback preferences. Despite these affective and strategic differences, no systematic gender differences were observed in attitudes toward the overall utility of WCF. These findings suggest the advantages of a gender-sensitive feedback pedagogy that acknowledges students' affective and strategic natures to ensure more effective and comprehensive EFL writing instruction

THE POLITICAL AND MILITARY DEVELOPMENTS IN BAHDINAN AREA 1988-1991 A HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL STUDY

Sulaiman Sh. Tawfiq, Hoger T. Tawfiq — Sun, 21 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0000

From 1988 to 1991, among the most sensitive developments that appeared in Iraq, as a result of the Iraqi military operation against the Kurdish people, the political and military situation of Bahdinan area became most sensitive generally. Hence, during that time a political vaccum appeared in that area, the Kurdish forces did not have much power to suppresses Iraqi forces from their attacks, nonetheless, the Kurdish parties moved inside border as a partisan group to assess the region, to reorganize its clandestine organization and conduct partisan activities against the Iraqi forces in that area particularly after appearing political development because of Iraqi’s attack on Kuwait. These political and military developments that happened in the region during that time became unclear, therefore, this study attempts to depict this sensitive stage deeply. The main objective of this study is to show these developments that heppaned as a result of the political and military of Iraq in the region, likewise, to demonstrate the Kurdish and Kurdish political parties’ conditions, as the political development that were emerged in the region brought a golden opportunity for Kurdish parties to reorganize their organization and political activities also directly effected on the people’s feeling to conduct partisan activities against Iraqi forces. Within its writing, this article attempts to answer some related questions, such as how did the Anfal campaigns affect the Kurdish parties’ organization? how did Kurdish parties’ attempt to conduct political activities against Iraqi forces? How did Iraq’s development effect its forces in that region and what strategy Kurds used to take advantageous from that developments? Did the Kurdish poltical parties attempt to take advantageous from that development? What was the Iraqi government reaction towards these developments which happened in the region

A QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON SCAFFOLDING EFL LEARNERS’ ORAL LANGUAGE SKILLS

Rewan Rashid Hussein, Hussein Ali Ahmed — Sun, 21 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study examines how scaffolding strategies improve the development of oral language skills, particularly speaking and listening, of Kurdish English as a Foreign Language (EFL) university students. Based on Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and the notion of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), the current study uses a quasi-experimental design to compare and contrast the outcomes of two groups, a control and an experimental. While the control group received regular instruction, the experimental group was exposed to structured scaffolding-based instruction. Moreover, during a four-month experimental course, 86 students completed IELTS-based pre- and post-tests. The data collected from the tests of both groups were analyzed using a combination of descriptive statistics and Paired–Samples t test. The findings revealed that while both groups showed improvement, the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group in both speaking and listening post-tests. Based on this, the experimental group exhibited statistically significant improvement in speaking (t(84) = 3.87, p <.001) and listening (t(84) = 3.45, p <.01). As such, the findings also affirmed the effectiveness of scaffolding strategies in enhancing oral skills, when applied consistently through gradual release of support, collaborative interaction, and constructive feedback from the teacher. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of how scaffolding supports EFL university students in developing their speaking and listening skill

CRAFTS FARRASH DURING THE MAMLUK ERA(648-923H/1250-1517AD) SOCIOECONOMIC STUDY

Dilman Yousif Ahmed — Mon, 22 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Islamic society witnessed a wide diversity of professions and crafts, where each profession was distinguished by its own social and economic characteristics and roles. Its status also varied depending on the nature of its function and importance. Within the scope of studying the social and economic history of the Mamluk state, this study tackles the profession of "Farrash" (sweeper) as one of the professions that enjoyed a privileged status, even its practitioners received support and patronage from the ruling authorities.The study focuses on analyzing the meaning of the term "Farrash" in the Mamluk context, exploring the social and economic aspects of the lives of practitioners of this profession. It also examines the interactions of Mamluk sultans and princes with them, and traces the most prominent figures in this profession. The study also addresses the issue of precisely defining the ranks and functional duties of this profession, observing its position in the social structure, and the general outlook on it in Mamluk society.The research problem concentrates on answering the following questions: What is the linguistic and terminological meaning of the term (Farrash)? How did the Mamluk sultans and princes deal with the people of this profession? What was the nature of the social and economic life of its practitioners? Who were the most prominent figures who practiced this profession in the Mamluk era? How was the organization of the ranks of this profession and selecting its function precisely? What was the Mamluk society's view of this profession? What were the most prominent places found in this profession?

ANALYZING THE ECOLINGUISTICS FOR THE LANGUAGE OF THE KARAMAEE BOOK IN THE KURDISTAN REGION

Salah S. Shabaz, Abdulsalam N.Abdullah — Mon, 22 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0000

In an era where environmental crises have become a global threat, this study, based on the framework of Ecolinguistics, provides an ecological analysis of the "environmental stories we live by" that are constructed in the "Karamee" (Competency) school textbook series in the Kurdistan Region. By analyzing three selected samples from the primary education stages (grades 2, 5, and 8) and using the analytical tools of Arran Stibbe (such as framing, erasure, and metaphor), the research concludes that the official educational discourse systematically narrates three main ideological stories. First, the powerful story of anthropocentrism, in which nature is represented as a resource for human benefit, and its independent and intrinsic value is reduced to mere utilitarian benefit. Second, the story of the passive citizen and the effective authority, a narrative that constructs an idealized image of state institutions as the sole problem-solvers while strategically erasing independent community action and the idea of self-reliance. Third, the story of simplified and depoliticized problems, where environmental issues are decontextualized from their complex political and economic contexts and presented as matters of individual morality or technical management, thereby concealing the role of corporate interests and systemic policies. In short, the research shows how environmental discourse, under the guise of education, is used to construct a specific worldview and produce the "good citizen" who is compliant with the existing system; a citizen who holds good attitudes but is equipped with limited critical skills to face real-world problems.

THE MEANING OF IRREGULAR PLURALS BETWEEN QUR’ANIC USAGE AND LINGUISTIC USAGE

sardar Abas Mohammed, Azza Adnan Ahmed Ezzat — Mon, 22 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0000

The study sheds light on the issue of how the Qur’an’s use of plural forms differs from the commonly known linguistic usage, and highlights the importance of the morphological level in linguistic studies. Any change in morphological structure leads to a change in meaning, and any addition to the morphological structure is an addition to the intended meaning. The Qur’an, therefore, chooses its words with utmost precision and in a rhetorical and expressive manner that has left the greatest masters of Arabic language unable to rival or reproduce it despite their eloquence and linguistic capabilities. Through its styles, shifts, and performance, the Qur’an has elevated the status of the Arabic language, developed it, and raised it to the highest level. Furthermore, the Qur’an selects the most precise form from among a range of forms in a way that suits the context and harmonizes with the surrounding words. Every plural form carries its own specific functional meaning in such a way that no other form can take its place and fully perform its function. For instance, the irregular plural is semantically associated by many with both paucity and multitude, and it may serve that purpose in certain Qur’anic verses. However, many other plural forms cannot be reduced simply to the meanings of paucity or multitude, as in al-aʿyun vs. al-ʿuyūn (“the eyes/ water springs”), al-kuffār vs. al-kafara (“the disbelievers”), al-abrār vs. al-barrara (“the righteous ones/ the righteous angels”), ḥamīr vs. ḥumur (“donkeys”), or when regular plurals are paired with irregular ones, such as al-jāriyāt vs. al-jawārī (“the sailing ships”), al-rāsiyāt vs. al-rawāsī (“the firmly set things/mountains”), and al-khabīthāt vs. al-khabāʾith (“the evil ones”), etc. In this study, we shall do our best to present several examples to illustrate how the Qur’an’s usage diverges from common linguistic usage.

IRJA AND THE RISE OF THE MURJIA A STUDY BASED ON ISLAMIC SOURCES AND ORIENTALIST WRITINGS

Ali Tariq Mohammed, Farsat Marie Ismail — Tue, 23 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0000

Since its early inception, Islamic thought has witnessed extensive debate concerning the issues of faith (Iman) and, deeds (Amal) and their interrelation. One of the most prominent triggers of this debate was the emergence of the (Murjia) sect, which represented a direction contrary to that of the (Khawarij) and the (Shia) in its understanding of the concept of Iman and its stance toward the perpetrator of a major sin. Initially, (irja) was associated with a circumstantial political stance characterized by neutrality toward the civil strife (fitna) among the Companions, but it later evolved into an independent theological doctrine. This doctrine held that Iman is limited to internal belief and verbal declaration, without considering, Amal as part of its essence.This study examines the phenomenon of (irja) on three levels: the first is an internal analysis of the term through classical Islamic sources: the second concerns the emergence of the sect, as shown in Islamic sources, which indicate that the (Murjia) went through two distinct historical phases, the first political, and the second theological-doctrinal. The third level is the Orientalist perspective, in which views diverged regarding the roots of the (Murjia). Van Vloten (d. 1903) viewed Irjāʾ as a form of social protest that emerged as a result of the marginalization of certain Muslim groups. In contrast, Goldziher (d. 1921) considered it a peaceful social movement that arose in response to a political and religious crisis, rejecting takfīr (excommunication) and emphasizing inner faith despite outward sin. Meanwhile, Josef van Ess (d. 2021) argued that it originated in a political context after the fitna (civil strife) and later developed into a theological doctrine.The importance of this study lies in its presentation of a comparative analytical vision that integrates both Islamic sources and Orientalist studies, demonstrating that (irja) is not merely a theological issue but a complex intellectual, social, and political phenomenon that had a notable impact on the history of Islamic thought and contributed to shaping the contours of theological discourse in the early centuries.

MILITARY OPERATIONS OF THE KURDISTAN DEMOCRATIC PARTY ORGANIZATIONS IN DUHOK CITY BEFORE THE MARCH 1991 UPRISING

Hayam haci Ahmed — Tue, 23 Jun 2026 00:00:00 +0000

This study sheds light on a marginalized and undocumented stage of the Kurdish liberation movement in Duhok, focusing specifically on the period preceding the March 1991 uprising. Despite its pivotal importance in the trajectory of Kurdish resistance, this phase has received little attention in academic research, journalistic coverage, or previous literature. The research examines how activists managed to break the wall of fear imposed by the Ba'athist regime on the population for decades and revive popular consciousness after a forced dormancy caused by systematic repression and genocidal policies against Kurdish society. The study adopts a socio-historical methodology, relying on direct field testimonies and an in-depth analysis of participants’ narratives and eyewitness accounts of key clandestine operations during that era, such as the bombing of Al-Kifah (Bzaf) School in February 1991 and the attempted attack by the Broshki unit in March of the same year. The findings reveal that these operations were not merely isolated military incidents but strategic turning points that helped rebuild trust between society and the revolutionary factions, paving the way for mass mobilization that culminated in the uprising. Although these efforts did not achieve full military success, they left a profound psychological and symbolic impact, reaffirming that the Kurdish will for liberation remained unbreakable and that the spirit of resistance continued to burn strongly in the collective consciousness of Duhok’s people. Which makes that period a clear indication of the strength of Kurdish national identity, its historical persistence against the policies of erasure and genocide that targeted it.