Humanities Journal of University of Zakho

BEYOND CONSOLIDATING POWER: THE LOGIC AND ADAPTABILITY OF POLITICAL PURGES IN STALIN’S SOVIET UNION, SADDAM’S IRAQ, AND THE ASSAD’S SYRIA

2025-10-01T10:48:54+00:00

This study analyzes the role of purges as systemic mechanisms of governance within Stalin’s Soviet Union, Saddam Hussein’s Iraq, and Assad’s Syria. While commonly perceived as instruments for power consolidation, this paper argues that purges extend beyond tactical purposes to function as institutionalized practices. These mechanisms enforced elite loyalty, restructured power dynamics, and suppressed dissent, serving as adaptive strategies for authoritarian resilience. The analysis identifies shared patterns, such as a dual-phase structure targeting external threats before focusing on internal rivals, while also exploring ideological, structural, and personalist dimensions. Despite ideological differences—Marxist-Leninist revolution in Stalin’s USSR, Ba’athist Arab nationalism in Iraq, and sectarian authoritarianism in Syria—the study reveals a universal adaptability of purges to the vulnerabilities of authoritarian regimes. Using Wintrobe’s (1998) concept of the “fear equilibrium” and Tilly’s (2003) theory of institutionalized violence, this comparative framework advances the understanding of authoritarian resilience and the strategic role of violence in state control.

ECONOMIC LIFE IN THE KURDISH COUNTRY IN GREEK BOOKS (480-21 BC)

2025-07-15T11:12:18+00:00

Classical sources are considered significant for the history of Kurdistan, particularly in the economic aspect, The economy has been a crucial factor in Kurdish life since the first millennium B.C., with the people of Kurdistan engaged in agriculture, industry, and livestock farming. Additionally, Kurdistan’s wealth in natural resources and dense forests contributed to its economic strength. These factors played a key role in the development of trade. Moreover, Kurdistan’s richness was a major reason for numerous external attacks throughout different periods in history.

THE ACHAEMENID ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM IN EGYPT DURING THE REIGN OF DARIUS 1 (522-486 BC)

2025-08-04T12:46:13+00:00

In the mid-sixth century BC, the Achaemenid Persians came to power, bringing about major changes in the Middle East. They destroyed the Median state in 550 BC and established a new state. Their early kings, such as Cyrus II and his son Cambyses, pursued a policy of expanding the state's borders, and soon this new state was able to expand the country's borders, and the states of Lydia, Babylon, and later Egypt became part of this state. The Achaemenids ruled Egypt for 132 years in two phases. The first phase (525-402 BC) established the 27th dynasty in the country, and the second phase (342-332 BC) established the 31st dynasty under Artaxerxes III. According to Herodotus, this country was appointed as the sixth satrap. Egypt was important due to its geographical location and the presence of the Nile River, the variety of agricultural products, and the Achaemenid kings, especially Darius I, who wanted to dominate Egypt for trade between the East and the West, and hence, this country was of particular importance to the state. Therefore, the Achaemenid kings, one after another, intended to seize this country. This article is based on archaeological observations and recent historical research on the changes in administrative, economic, and social structures in Egypt during Persian rule and the impact of these two civilizations on each other.

POLITICAL AND NATIONAL RESISTANCE IN THE KURDISH NOVELS WRITTEN IN THE MOUNTAINS (1976–1991)

2025-08-10T10:35:01+00:00

Kurdish novels that written in the mountains, particularly those published during the period of the Gulan Revolution (1976–1991), constitutes a critical narrative space wherein the socio-political realities of Kurdish society are represented and reimagined. These works emerge as intentional interventions by Kurdish intellectuals and writers seeking to engage in the liberation movement of Kurdistan by employing literature as a tool for political expression and national awakening. The novels serve not only as literary artifacts but as mediums for disseminating nationalist ideology and reinforcing collective identity. This study applies Miroslav Hroch theoretical framework to explore the intersection of political resistance and national identity within these novels. It investigates how textual structures and symbolic language articulate resistance, construct meaning, and challenge hegemonic discourses—particularly those that utilized religion as a mechanism for undermining Kurdish identity. In contrast, the discourse of the Kurdish political movement centered on promoting solidarity among Kurds, Arabs, Persians, and Turks, while simultaneously emphasizing national unity and cultural resilience. In the result of research contribute to the defense of the homeland through literary representation, aiming to revive cultural memory, enhance popular consciousness, and cultivate a culture of reading and national cohesion. The study further argues that these narratives function as vehicles for awakening the Kurdish national spirit, stimulating political awareness, and promoting resistance-oriented discourse as a means of social and political transformation.

SAMAND SIYABANDOV THE KURDISH SOVIET COLONEL - HERO OF STALINGRAD 1909-1989

2025-07-08T12:17:05+00:00

The participation in the military of the Kurds in World War II 1939-1945 is a controversial issue, therefore the research tries to expose the role of one of the most important Kurdish soviet characters’, who had great roles in the Soviet Union army. When faced with the German army attacks on soviet land during 1941-1945, in addition, had a role in Kurdistan Iran with a soviet army in Iran and made connections with the Kurdish movement leaders, and thus recognized his attitude towards the Kurdish issue, this paper researched discover Kurdish soviet citizen roles for defenses to soviet union country through world war II. This research aimed to study two essential sections. First, samand Sibandov effects in the Soviet Union's defenses against the Nazis army during attacks, as a result, he became trustworthy to soviet leaders therefore, he was chosen to lead the military squad, and basic in his role in many battles and his amazing military leadership in world war II especially in Stalingrad battle 1942-1943 he awards many decorations during his military service as well as name a Stalingrad hero. The second section of the study is dedicated to the relationship and samand sibandov attitude towards the Kurdish issue as well as his connection with Kurdish leadership in Iraq and Iran, the research studies Samand's position towards the Kurdish movement did he make an effort or tries to changing soviet union attitude about Kurdish issue? in addition, did he establish relationships between the Kurdish leaders in Iraq especially Mall Mustapha Barzani, and the soviet union leaders politicians, and military leadership soviet in north Iran? The interesting issue is the Kurdish contemporary references don’t realize samand sibandove belongs to the Kurdish nation therefore this couldn't elaborate his attitude towards the Kurdish movement as well as the relationship with the Kurdish leader’s politician but in contrast, he has a good attitude. therefore, this research academically spends effort to analyze this character's attitude through specific details.

A COMPARİSON BETWEEN HAİKU, POETRY POSTERS AND SE-KHESHTI İN KURDİSH POETRY İN SOUTH AND EAST KURDİSTAN

2025-06-11T10:58:08+00:00

Short poetry is one of the most important means of expression in world literature, the brevity of the poem and the depth of its meanings attract readers Short poetry in Kurdish literature has a long history. Some of the styles of short poetry are as follows: the single verse, the dubayt and the quatrain. etc. The demand for these poetic styles continues to this day, and many poets are still interested in these poems, albeit with a modern approach. From this standpoint, this research(A comparison between Haiku, Poetry Posters and Se-Kheshtı in Kurdish Poetry in South and East Kurdistan) is based on a comparison between three different forms of poems: haiku, Poetry Posters and Se-Kheshtı in Kurdish poetry. Based on the texts of a group of poets, the research aims to understand the world of meanings, connotations, structure, and specific form of each type of poem and to state its results. Taking into account the haiku poem's intermingling with different types of literature, this research will focus on the similarities and differences between them. To better clarify this issue, we will shed light on each of the three forms of poems we have identified, and answer some questions: Does each have its own culture and philosophy? And how can we distinguish between haiku and other forms of short poems? Based on these hypothetical questions, we reached a number of conclusions that highlight the differences and commonalities between these types of short poetry. The results of this research demonstrate that each of the haiku, Poetry Posters and Se-Kheshtı has its own distinct culture and philosophy. Although brevity is a common feature among the three poetic genres, haiku differs from the other two in that the poet must be neutral in conveying images and refrain from expressing his feelings indirectly.

FORMATION OF ROMANTIC THEMES IN PIRBAL MAHMOOD'S POETRY

2025-08-11T11:46:46+00:00

The aim of this study is to explore the prominent romantic poetic themes found in a selection of poems by the Kurdish poet from Erbil, Pirbal Mahmoud (1934–2004). He is one of the contemporary Kurdish poets who wrote poetry in both Arabic and Kurdish. The poet engaged in a poetic experience enriched by his personal stances toward events, nature, and humanity. He addressed romantic themes that reflected his individual perspectives in most of his poetic inclinations. The study adopts a thematic approach to uncover the dominant themes in some of his poems, as well as a stylistic approach to highlight the artistic and semantic aspects of those themes, which are considered significant features of his poetry. The importance of this research lies in shedding light on a romantic Kurdish poet who has not received adequate attention in scholarly studies. The paper includes a prelude on romantic poetic structure and themes, followed by an introduction and four main sections in the first chapter. The first section addresses nostalgia for the past; the second, love and affection; the third, retreat into nature; and the fourth sheds light on the theme of humanism. The study concludes with the key findings drawn from the research.

CONCEPTUAL BLENDING THEORY IN THE FORMATION OF PROVERB'S MEANING ACCORDING TO ANDERSSON'S COGNITIVE MODEL

2025-07-20T10:37:03+00:00

Cognitive linguistics is considered as a contemporary branch of linguistics that has drawn considerable attention among modern linguists. Through a cognitive lens, this discipline examines language, raising questions about linguistic phenomena from this perspective. Akin to their counterparts in other linguistic domains, cognitive linguists regard language as a central subject and aim to analyze both the system and function of language from the standpoint of the mind. Among the primary objectives of cognitive linguistics is to elucidate the processes occurring within the human mind, especially the way information is received, and meanings are constructed. In cognitive linguistics, some scholars consider conceptual blending theory to serve as a complement to mental spaces theory and the broader cognitive domains of intelligence. Although conceptual blending theory is also complicatedly linked to conceptual metaphor theory, it was specifically formulated to tackle challenges that neither mental spaces theory nor conceptual metaphor theory could adequately resolve. With the aim of clarifying how meaning is formed in certain expressions within the Kurdish Language, this research investigates Andersson’s cognitive model for understanding Proverb's. Drawing upon the foundational principles of this model, the study addresses the mechanisms by which meaning is constructed internally, demonstrating how Proverb's can involve complex relationship between different mental domains, ultimately leading to the emergence of a new, uniquely characterized conceptual space. Within the framework of conceptual blending theory, Andersson’s cognitive model provides partial insight into the way such proverbs are generated, employed, and interpreted. The present study attempts to answer the following central question: To what extent can this model be used to analyze the formation of novel meanings in Proverb's, and how valid or reliable is this approach? The primary aim of this research is to enable more precise analysis and explanation of Proverb's through a new model of meaning formation, while providing improved explanations and new interpretations in language.

IḤSĀN ʿABBĀS’S TRANSLATIONS IN THEIR HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT:

2025-08-13T12:50:57+00:00

Iḥsān ʿAbbās (1920–2003) was a leading Palestinian literary critic, historian, and translator whose works shaped modern Arab intellectual thought. His translations, produced across decades of scholarship, mirror the cultural, intellectual, and political contexts of his time. In Ghurbat al-Rāʿī (The Shepherd’s Estrangement), ʿAbbās reflects on his life and work, offering valuable insights into the circumstances, motivations, and intellectual commitments behind his translation projects.This study explores ʿAbbās’s translations through the lens of Ghurbat al-Rāʿī, focusing on the historical and cultural factors that influenced his choices. The research is organized into sections corresponding to the major works he rendered into Arabic, with each section examining the specific context, purpose, and impact of a translation.By combining bibliographic analysis with readings of Ghurbat al-Rāʿī, the study highlights how ʿAbbās’s translation practice was shaped by his personal experiences and the broader intellectual climate of the Arab world. This work seeks to contribute to a deeper understanding of ʿAbbās as a translator and to situate his translations within the wider cultural landscape of twentieth-century Arab thought

THE SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT IN THE ANCIENT HITTITE KINGDOM (1680-1450 B.C.)

2025-08-20T12:38:00+00:00

The structure of government in the ancient Hittite kingdom is an elementary and essential topic in the study of its history. The Hittites were among the first to establish a centralized state in Anatolia. They played an important role in the political and cultural developments of the ancient Near East. The ruling system in the Hittite Empire was distinguish by an enlightened administrative and political organization, enabling it to play with the great powers at that period, such as the Egyptian and Babylonian empires. This study look into nature of power in the Hittite state, focusing on the monarchy, which granted the king absolute powers of government. Despite the centralization of royal authority, two councils shared the management of state affairs with him: the Panku and Tulya. These councils played advisory and regulatory roles, but the final say in decision-making always rested with the king. This study briefly examines the political history of the ancient Hittite Empire and the various stages it went through. It also sheds light on the origins and development of administration within the Hittite state structure, presenting the administrative form and its role in managing the empire's affairs. The study also demonstrates the pivotal roles played by the army in organizing and administering the Hittite state. eventually, the study reviews Hittite laws and their impact on the administration of the kingdom, along with the role played by the courts in implementing these laws and ensuring the smooth running of the administrative system.