Introduction

The concept of locus of control has garnered considerable attention from the scientific community over the past 50 years. A study of "PsychInfo" reveals that the term was used in approximately 18,000 articles by the end of 2015 (NOWICKI & DUKE, 2017). In addition, numerous recent studies incorporated the concept as a primary variable (Bani‐Hani & Hamdan‐Mansour, 2021; Chiang et al., 2019; Churchill et al., 2020; Heywood et al., 2017). The ongoing interest in the concept of locus of control might be due to its important implications for psychological and behavioral studies.

Rotter, (1966) states that locus of control refers to the individuals’ perception of their capability to exercise control over their lives. The concept is divided into two distinct categories: "internals" and "externals”. It is also added that highly internally controlled people view their actions and behaviors as the primary determinants of the outcomes they experience. Conversely, those with a high level of external locus of control believe that external factors such as the actions of others, fate, or chance are the main causes of what occurs in their lives.

According to Shannak and Al-Taher, (2012), one of the most significant personality characteristics that affect an individual's behavior in an organizational setting is their locus of control. This is due to its significant impact on job involvement, job satisfaction, absenteeism, performance, happiness, and work-related stress (Padmanabhan, 2021; Pushpinder Singh & Kaur, 2018). Therefore, investigating and understanding this concept in a context that has not been previously studied, to the best of researchers' knowledge, is crucial.

On the other hand, leadership learning has gained significant attention from researchers globally. While some academics question whether leadership is intrinsic, this study focuses on the perspective that leadership is a result of a learning process. Leadership potential is not something that some people have and others do not. However, it is more widely distributed than traditionally believed. Practically, all people have the potential to lead, but traditions and myths about leadership can prevent individuals from becoming effective leaders (Kouzes & Posner, 2016). They further argue that to become exemplary leaders, individuals must move past these myths and focus on implementing leadership learning programs that will enable them to learn and grow as leaders. This is because developing leadership skills can lead to more productive organizations through the enhancement of individuals' feelings of self-worth and meaningfulness.

In the current highly competitive environment, improving individuals’ abilities is a vital step for developing effective leaders, which can also help organizations to survive and prosper (Seidle et al., 2016). They also add that the demand for leadership learning practices has evolved as an answer to the internal and external challenges faced by organizations globally. The Internal challenges arise from the new structures of organizations, which view leaders as coordinators, consultants, and coaches, rather than just bosses. On the other hand, external constraints resulted from the rapid changes that have created uncertainty, unpredictability, and complexity of issues that cannot be resolved by traditional leaders.

Additionally, Maheshwari and Yadav (2018) contend that having suitable leadership learning programs within an organization is viewed as a competitive advantage. Therefore, organizations must offer leadership development programs that enhance people's beliefs of their self-worth-worth, confidence, and problem-solving skills, as these factors may impact their locus of control (Maheshwari & Yadav, 2018). It can be said that investigating the association between the two variables, : leadership learning practices and locus of control is an important area of research. Additionally, exploring this relationship will help decision-makers comprehend how leadership learning programs impact the way people view their abilities to manage their working environment.

Although previous research has explained the linkage between locus of control and various outcomes, including job involvement, job satisfaction, performance, absenteeism, happiness, work stress, and well-being, few studies have investigated locus of control within the context of organizations. Therefore, examining the factors that affect locus of control within such an important context might help organizational leaders to gain insight into how to better support their personnel, improve work satisfaction, and reduce stress levels in the workplace. This research gap is particularly relevant since individuals’ perceptions can significantly affect organizational outcomes. Consequently, this study aims to fill this gap, theoretically, by testing the impact of self-managed learning, practice-based learning, and formal leadership development on work locus of control. In addition, this study will provide valuable insights that can guide the development of effective leadership learning programs and contribute to the development of highly effective leaders within organizations. Based on the above discussion, this study will try to answer the following research question.

Research Question

"What is the impact of implementing leadership learning practices on the work locus of control of heads of departments in governmental universities in the Kurdistan Region-Iraq?"

Aims of the Study

The present study aims at:

1. determining the current level of work locus of control among the head of departments in governmental universities in the Kurdistan Region-Iraq.

2. assessing the frequency and effectiveness of leadership learning practices among the heads of departments in governmental universities in the Kurdistan Region-Iraq.

3. examining the relationship between various types of leadership learning practices (self-managed learning, practice-based learning, and formal leadership development) and work locus of control.

4. identifying the extent to which self-managed learning, practice-based learning, and formal leadership development predict work locus of control among heads of departments in governmental universities in the Kurdistan Region-Iraq.

Higher Education System in Kurdistan Region-Iraq

The Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research in the Kurdistan Region-Iraq was established in 2006 to supervise the improvement and development of higher education in the Region. It aims to provide high-quality education that meets international standards and prepares students for successful careers in different fields of life.

Currently, numerous public universities are running under the supervision of the Ministry of Higher Education, including, the University of Sulaimani, Salahaddin University, the University of Duhok, the University of Zakho, the University of Koya, the University of Suran, the University of Charmo, University of Halabja, University of Garmian, University of Raparin, Erbil Polytechnic University, Duhok Polytechnic University, and Sulaimani Polytechnic University. These universities offer a variety range of academic programs in different disciplines, including engineering, medicine, law, management, economics, and social sciences. They also provide research opportunities for faculty members and students, and they contribute to the overall development and growth of the region (Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, n.d.)

The Ministry of Higher Education in the Kurdistan Region has made significant progress in improving the quality of education and expanding access to higher education in recent years. However, there are still some challenges to be addressed, such as inadequate infrastructure and limited resources. Despite these challenges, these universities are committed to providing good quality education and contributing to the development of the Kurdistan Region.

Literature review

Locus of Control

The phrase "locus of control" refers to a concept introduced by Julian Rotter in his social learning theory in 1954. Locus of control, as introduced in the context of social learning, refers to a generalized expectation about the relationship between personal attributes and observed consequences. It emerges as a result of a series of unique experiences in which people comprehend the causal sequences that occur in their life (NOWICKI & DUKE, 2017). Nowicki, (2016) states that the origin of locus of control is traced back to the influential social learning theory of Julian Rotter in 1954, who is considered one of the true giants of American psychology. However, Rotter (1966) states that research about "chance and skill effects on expectations for reinforcement" by Phares in 1957 made the first attempt to quantify individual variations in believing in external control as a psychological variable. The study found that people with external control believe in chance situations more than skill situations. This means that the idea of externality in terms of controlling behavior was mentioned and researched before (Rotter, 1966).

Although there is no agreement on the definition of the term "locus of control," it has been extensively described and defined by researchers. Generally, an event that is considered a reward or reinforcement by some people may be perceived and responded to differently by others. This is because some individuals believe that their attributes and behaviors are the main determinants of the results they receive in their lives and this belief is named "internal control." While other individuals believe that rewards are not contingent on their behaviors and are instead controlled by external forces, and this belief is named "external control" (Rotter, 1966). Kutanis et al. (2011) claim that the sort of attributions that people make for their task successes or failures is characterized as the locus of control. They further added that the significance of this attribution is that it reflects human opinions about the causes of life outcomes and results. Consequently, it can be asserted that locus of control is the sort of justification that one creates for life events.

Similarly, Chinedu and Nwizuzu (2021) define the locus of control as a personal trait that determines the degree to which people feel that their life events are under or out of their control. They state that the locus of control refers to the location of someone's control and is assumed to be positioned either inside or outside the individual. This is why it is referred to as an internal or external locus of control. Added to that, Individuals are described as external when they feel that their failures or successes are unrelated to their actions and behaviors. On the other hand, they are described to have an internal locus of control when they believe that their failures or successes are the results of their actions. Hence, it can be said that both external and internal locus of control have extensive effects on individuals’ attitudes and behaviors as they fall somewhere between these two ways of thinking.

In this regard, Nowicki (2016) illustrates that individuals with an external locus of control have greater feelings of anxiety and depression than those with an internal locus of control. He also added that compared to internally controlled individuals, those with an external locus of control are more likely to have behavioral problems in their lives. Therefore, Infurna et al. (2011) assert that individuals with an internal locus of control live approximately three to seven years longer than those with an external locus of control. Studies related to organizational behavior also identify the importance of locus of control as a work-related attitude. Boone et al. (1996) state that when economic times are difficult, CEOs with an internal locus of control are financially more successful and less likely to bankrupt their enterprises than those with an external locus of control. Similarly, Spector et al. (2002) also state that individuals with an internal locus of control are more successful managers than those with an external locus of control. They further add that internality is one of the best determinants of administrative success in an organization. Heinström (2010) explains that individuals with an internal locus of control maintain their sense of responsibility and autonomy throughout their professional lives. He further adds that the top priority of individuals with an internal locus of control is to learn more about their work responsibilities and adapt to their work environment to gain a full understanding of the situation when they start a new job or new position. On the other hand, those with an external locus of control depend on others' decisions when seeking career opportunities and financial gains.

People's reactions to failure and success experiences vary, depending on whether the outcomes of their activities are attributed to competence or luck. Therefore, several measurements have been developed to assess the locus of control since its inception. Some of these measures have been specifically designed to assess children's locus of control, while others are aimed at measuring specific goal areas or mental health locus of control. However, considering the nature of the current study, it is believed that the "Work Locus of Control Scale" (WLCS) by Spector (1988) is the most appropriate instrument for assessing locus of control. This is because the study will be conducted within the context of organizations, and the WLCS is the only scale that deals with workplace and work-related variables. Additionally, many of the other tools have been developed for general assessment or have been widely criticized for not meeting their objectives. Hence, the WLCS will be utilized to measure the locus of control among the study sample.

Leadership Learning

As defined by Roupnel et al. (2019), leadership learning or development is a process by which facilitators utilize a set of exercises or mental activities intended to encourage members to reflect on their learning experiences. As a result, it enhances the transfer of information and skills to the workplace. In other words, it can be considered a way for facilitators to help groups of people explore their learning experiences and practices using a series of mental activities and exercises. Maheshwari and Yadav (2018) define it as a social process that gives considerable attention to the growth of interpersonal relations and ensures that everyone in the organization is involved. Allen et al. (2014) propose that leadership development is the process of building individuals, groups, and organizational capability to attain organizational objectives.

Accordingly, Roupnel et al. (2019) explain that the collective capacity of individuals can be built through leadership learning programs. They also explain that individuals become more prepared to solve unpredictable issues by involving them effectively in leadership responsibilities and roles. Therefore, it is necessary to make leadership development part of the organizational culture and synchronize it with its daily practices (Dalakoura, 2010). Hence, organizations must have regular learning programs for building current and future leadership capacities. The primary goals of these programs are to create leaders who can make reliable judgments, take strategic decisions, motivate followers, handle difficult situations, and finally reach appropriate conclusions (Roupnel et al., 2019). They further added[A2] that these programs should be able to move the leaders from an individual-based identity to a collective-based identity.

In addition, Turner and Baker, (2017) pointed out that for attaining effective leadership learning and development, these programs should go beyond the structured and theoretical-based training programs and focus more on organizational community, support, self-discovery, and practices. This is mainly due to the reason that theory-based methods of leadership learning have been criticized for not being able to allow the trainees to learn from their work and thus enhance their soft skills (Dalakoura, 2010).

According to Hall (2016), there are plenty of factors that might identify the success or failure of leadership learning programs. These include the selection of trainers, who should offer psychological support and show empathy; the selection of participants, who must be committed to the leadership learning program; and the selection of the workplace, which is an important component for effective leadership development.

Despite having different approaches to leadership learning, there is generally a theoretical and statistical similarity between them. However, Scott et al. (2008) developed a leadership development and learning approach that covers almost all the methods of learning and development proposed by other approaches. They divided these methods into three main scales: self-managed learning, practice-based learning, and formal leadership development.

While other approaches and models identified clear methods for leadership learning and development, none of them mentioned self-managed learning activities, which are significant components of the learning process. Therefore, this study will adopt Scott et al.'s (2008) approach to measure the level of leadership learning among the researched sample.

Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses

While several studies have investigated locus of control as a predictor or determinant of other variables, only a few studies have considered it as a dependent variable. This might be due to the reason that locus of control has significant outcomes, such as job involvement, job satisfaction, absenteeism, performance, happiness, work stress, and well-being (Padmanabhan, 2021; Pushpinder Singh & Kaur, 2018). However, it is also important to gain knowledge about the factors that affect locus of control, especially within the context of organizations, where personnel perceptions can affect organizational outcomes. This knowledge can be helpful to redirect human resources as needed.

Although some studies have evaluated the factors affecting locus of control, only a few of them have been conducted within the context of organizations. According to Latham and Pinder (2004), leadership learning can influence the locus of control in several ways. Firstly, leadership learning programs often focus on building self-awareness, which can help individuals better understand their strengths and weaknesses, as well as their ability to control their outcomes. This can lead to a greater sense of personal agency and an internal locus of control. Secondly, leadership training can help individuals develop a growth mindset, which is the belief that their abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work. This can shift individuals' perceptions of their ability to control their outcomes from external to internal factors. Thirdly, leadership development can also help individuals develop skills such as problem-solving, decision-making, and strategic thinking, which can help them feel more in control of their work environments (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998).

Furthermore, Howell and Avolio (1993) found that transformational leadership is associated with a higher internal locus of control. A study by Serin et al. (2009) on a sample of trainee teachers and the factors that influence their learning and studying strategies and locus of control, discovered a meaningful relationship between studying aids, motivation, self-test-retest, and locus of control. Another study by Shannak and Al-Taher (2012) noted that employees' level of education, religiosity, gender, and age are associated with work locus of control. Wallace et al. (2012) also observed that a higher level of self-esteem is strongly related to an internal locus of control. Another research by Ahmad, (2014) on "Head nurses' leadership style and their locus of control" found a significant positive correlation between authorization, democratic, directing, delegating, coaching, and facilitating styles of leadership and locus of control. He pointed out that head nurses who gain sufficient knowledge about different styles of leadership are more likely to have an internal locus of control. He also suggested that highly effective leaders can be developed through leadership training and development programs.

Recent studies have further highlighted the significance of understanding the impact of leadership learning on locus of control. For instance, (Tangatarova & Gao, 2021)[A3] a positive relationship between transformational leadership and employees' internal locus of control. This in turn was associated with higher levels of psychological well-being. Qurrahtulain et al. (2022) also found a significant relationship between inclusive leadership and internal locus of control. in addition, Paik and Lee (2022) found a strong positive relationship between leader-member exchange and internal locus of control. Byantara et al. (2023) also found that locus of control is a moderator factor between transformational leadership and other work-related variables.

This evidence suggests that locus of control is something that can be changed and developed through appropriate interventions. As mentioned earlier, leadership learning programs are designed to enhance individual capabilities to take responsibility for their actions, build their personalities, increase their self-esteem, and boost their rate of influence. Therefore, it is assumed that these programs may also reorient an individual's locus of control. Therefore, based on the above discussion, it can be hypothesized that leadership learning practices will positively impact work locus of control within organizations.

Research hypotheses

H1: There will be a positive association between leadership learning practices and employees' perception of control over their work. This hypothesis contains the following sub-hypothesis:

H1a: Employees who engage in self-managed learning activities will have a stronger internal locus of control in their work compared to those who do not engage in such activities.

H1b: Employees who participate in practice-based learning activities will perceive a greater sense of control over their work compared to those who do not participate in such activities.

H1c: Employees who participate in formal leadership development will report higher levels of internal locus of control in their work than those who do not participate in such experiences.

H2: Leadership learning practices will collectively explain variance in employees' work locus of control. This hypothesis contains the following sub-hypothesis:

H2a: Self-managed learning will positively affect work locus of control.

H2b: Practice-based learning will positively affect work locus of control.

H2c: Formal leadership development will positively affect the work locus of control.

Theoretical Framework

Table 1indicates that the sample consisted of 207 participants, with 84.5% males and 15.5% females. This suggests that there may be a gender imbalance among heads of departments in universities. However, it is important to note that the gender distribution in the sample may not necessarily reflect the gender distribution in the population of heads of departments, and further research would be needed to confirm this.

The educational background of the participants was also of interest, as the role of head of the department in a university typically requires a high level of education. The table shows that the majority of participants (64.3%) held a Ph.D., which is consistent with the expectations for this role. Additionally, 35.7% of the participants held a Master's degree, indicating that the sample included participants with a range of educational backgrounds.

The length of time that participants had been in their current positions was also relevant for understanding the characteristics of heads of departments in universities. The majority of participants (50.2%) had less than 5 years of tenure, which may suggest that turnover is relatively high among heads of departments. This could have important implications for the management of departments and the continuity of leadership.

Finally, the table provides information about the academic title of the participants, which is relevant for understanding the nature of the sample. The majority of participants (71.9%) held academic positions, with Assistant Lecturers, Lecturers, and Assistant Professors making up the majority of the sample. This is consistent with the expectations for the role of head of the department in a university, as it typically requires an academic background and experience.

Overall, the table provides valuable insights into the demographic and personal characteristics of heads of departments in universities, and the fact that the participants were selected randomly adds to the validity and generalizability of the study findings. However, it is important to note that there may still be biases or limitations in the sample, and further research would be needed to confirm the findings and understand the implications for management and leadership in academic departments

Measurement

Data were collected using a pre-structured and close-ended questionnaire, which was designed based on the theoretical framework and research hypotheses. The questionnaire consisted of three sections: demographic information (4 demographic factors), leadership learning practices including; self-managed learning (6 items), practice-based learning (7 items), formal learning (7 items), and work locus of control (WLOC) (16-items). The participants were required to express their level of agreement or disagreement with each statement based on a five-point Likert scale; (5- strongly agree, 4- agree, 3- neutral, 2- disagree, 1- strongly disagree). In terms of the reliability of the questionnaire, results revealed high reliability for the scales as Cronbach's Alpha coefficient for leadership learning was (0.90) and locus of control was (0.72). This shows a reasonable level of scale internal consistency.

Data Analysis

The collected data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics such as means, standard deviations, and frequencies were used to describe the demographic characteristics of the participants and the variables of interest. Inferential statistics, including correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis, were used to test the research hypotheses.

Specifically, Pearson correlation analysis was used to examine the bivariate relationships between the independent variable (leadership learning practices) and the dependent variable (work locus of control). Multiple regression analysis was then used to test the research hypotheses by examining the unique effects of the independent variables (self-managed learning, practice-based learning, and formal leadership development) on the dependent variable (work locus of control).

Mathematically, the study is based on using Multiple Lenier Regression analysis, where the dependent variable is (Locus of Control) and the independent variables are (self-managed learning, practice-based learning, and formal learning). Therefore, the fitted model can be formulated mathematically as follows:

Y₁= B₀ + B₁ X₁+ B₂X₂+ B₃X₃

Where:

Y₁: is the dependent variable (Locus of Control)

X₁_:is the first independent variable (Self-managed Learning)

X₂: is the first independent variable (Practice-based Learning)

X₃: is the first independent variable (Formal Learning)

B₀: is the model intercept

B₁, B₂, and B₃: are the slop of each of the three independent variables respectively.

Results

Discussion

The results of the research provided evidence that leadership learning practices are positively associated with the heads of departments’ perception of control over their work. This finding is consistent with previous research that has demonstrated a positive relationship between leadership development programs and employee outcomes such as self-efficacy and job performance (Ahmad, 2014; Avolio et al., 2004; & Wallace et al., 2012).

Moreover, the research supports the sub-hypotheses of H1, indicating that employees who engage in self-managed learning activities, practice-based learning activities, and formal leadership development have higher levels of internal locus of control in their work. These findings are in line with previous studies that have shown that these types of learning activities can lead to improvements in employee performance and job satisfaction (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Serin et al., 2009; Shannak & Al-Taher, 2012). The results are also in line with the results of Paik and Lee (2022) who found a strong positive relationship between leader-member exchange and internal locus of control. Qurrahtulain et al. (2022) also found a significant relationship between inclusive leadership and internal locus of control.

It is worth noting that the research found that self-managed learning activities did not have a significant effect on employees' perception of control over their work, contrary to what was hypothesized. This result is inconsistent with some previous research that has suggested that self-directed learning can improve job performance and job satisfaction and locus of control (Saks & Belcourt, 2006). However, it is possible that the measures or sample used in this study differed from those used in previous studies, which could account for the different findings.

In summary, the research contributes to the growing body of literature about the importance of leadership learning practices for enhancing employees' locus of control. The results suggest that organizations can benefit from implementing leadership learning programs that include formal leadership development and practice-based learning activities. However, further studies need to be conducted to explore perspectives into the specific factors that contribute to the effectiveness of these learning programs and to identify strategies for promoting self-managed learning activities in the workplace.

Limitations, Future research

In interpreting the results of any research, it’s important to distinguish the limitations of the research and consider them to be avoided by future research. The following are some limitations of the present study:

1- Sample size: The sample size of the study may be relatively small, which could limit the generalizability of the findings. Larger sample sizes can more reliable results by reducing the impact of chance variability.

2- Self-reported measures: The study relied on self-reported measures of leadership learning practices and employees' perception of control over their work, which could be subject to response biases or errors. For example, employees may be more likely to report positively on their participation in learning activities or their sense of control over their work due to social desirability biases.

3- Cross-sectional design: a cross-sectional design was employed in this study, which meant that all the used data were gathered on different ocasions. Therefore, this might limit the ability to establish causality between leadership learning practices and employees' perception of control over their work.

4- Limited variables: The study only examined the relationship between leadership learning practices and employees' perception of control over their work, but did not consider other factors that may influence employees’ outcomes. For example, other individual differences, situational factors, or job characteristics could affect employees' sense of control over their work.

5- Limited generalizability: The study was conducted in a specific context or setting, and the findings may not be generalizable to other industries, organizations, or populations.

Therefore, Future studies in this field might take into account these limitations by using larger sample sizes, longitudinal designs, using a mixed –method research , and examining a broader range of variables that could impact employees’ outcomes.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this research, here are some recommendations forwarded to the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research in Kurdistan Region-Iraq :

1- Encourage self-managed learning activities: The findings suggest that employees who engage in self-managed learning activities perceive a stronger sense of control over their work. Therefore, the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research could promote and support self-managed learning activities, such as online courses, webinars, or self-directed learning opportunities for employees.

2- Emphasize practice-based learning: The study found that practice-based learning activities are positively associated with employees' sense of control over their work. The Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research could emphasize practice-based learning in leadership development programs, such as internships, job rotations, or action learning projects, to help employees apply their learning directly to their work.

3- Invest in formal leadership development: The study found that employees who participate in formal leadership development report higher levels of internal locus of control in their work. Therefore, the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research could invest in formal leadership development programs, such as workshops, seminars, or certificate programs, to enhance employees' leadership skills and sense of control over their work.

4- Enhance a culture of continuous learning: The study highlights the importance of creating a culture of continuous learning at universities. The Ministry of Higher Education and Scietific Research could foster such a culture by encouraging managers and leaders to model learning behaviors, providing opportunities for peer learning and collaboration, and recognizing and rewarding employees who engage in learning activities.

5- Conduct further research: The study identifies some important relationships between leadership learning practices and employees' perception of control over their work, however further research is needed to explore these relationships more deeply. The Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research could support further research in this area to gain a deeper understanding of the impact of leadership learning practices on employee outcomes.

Conclusion

the study investigated the relationship between leadership learning practices and heads of departments’ perception of control over their work at public universities in the Kurdistan Region-Iraq. It was hypothesized that all leadership learning practices would have a relationship with work locus of control. The empirical results indicated a positive association between leadership learning practices and employees' sense of control over their work. Specifically, self-managed learning activities, practice-based learning activities, and formal leadership development were found to be positively related to the sense of control over work among the researched sample. However, out of three leadership learning practices, only two of them were found to be statistically significant in terms of impact.

These findings have important implications for leadership development and organizational performance in public universities of the Kurdistan Region-Iraq. The study highlights the importance of creating a culture of continuous learning and investing in leadership development programs that provide opportunities for self-managed learning and practice-based learning.

Despite the limitations of the present study, overall, it contributes to the literature on leadership learning. In addition, it provides valuable perspectives for organizational leaders and policymakers in the public universities of Kurdistan Region-Iraq who are interested in enhancing their employees' sense of control over their work through leadership learning practices.

References

Ahmad, S. H. (2014). Head nurses leadership style and their locus of control. International Journal of Current Research, 6(12), 10605–10614.

Allen, S. J., Miguel, R. F., & Martin, B. A. (2014). Know, see, plan, do A model for curriculum design in leadership development. SAM Advanced Management Journal, 72(2), 26–38.

Avolio, B. J., Zhu, W., Koh, W., & Bhatia, P. (2004). Transformational leadership and organizational commitment: Mediating role of psychological empowerment and moderating role of structural distance. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 25(8), 951–968.

Baldwin, T. T., & Ford, J. K. (1988). Transfer of training: A review and directions for future research. Personnel Psychology, 41(1), 63–105.

Bani‐Hani, M. A., & Hamdan‐Mansour, A. M. (2021). The moderation effect of locus of control on the relationship between job demand and job satisfaction among nurses. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 27(1), e12876.

Boone, C., De Brabander, B., & Van Witteloostuijn, A. (1996). CEO locus of control and small firm performance: An integrative framework and empirical test. Journal of Management Studies, 33(5), 667–700.

Byantara, R. A., Qamari, I. N., & Saad, M. S. M. (2023). Transformational leadership, organisational climate, and internal locus of control on innovative work behaviour in hospitality sector of rural area. BISMA (Bisnis Dan Manajemen), 15(2), 119–138.

Chiang, Y.-T., Fang, W.-T., Kaplan, U., & Ng, E. (2019). Locus of control: The mediation effect between emotional stability and pro-environmental behavior. Sustainability, 11(3), 820.

Chinedu, O. R., & Nwizuzu, C. B. (2021). Relationship between Locus of Control and Academic Achievement of Secondary School Students in Abia State. Journal of Analytical Sciences, Methods and Instrumentation, 11(2), 15–22.

Churchill, S. A., Munyanyi, M. E., Prakash, K., & Smyth, R. (2020). Locus of control and the gender gap in mental health. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 178, 740–758.

Dalakoura, A. (2010). Differentiating leader and leadership development: A collective framework for leadership development. Journal of Management Development.

Hall, C. (2016). The Leadership Outlook: Leadership Driving Organizational Performance.

Heinström, J. (2010). 11 - Locus of control. In J. B. T.-F. F. to F. Heinström (Ed.), Chandos Information Professional Series (pp. 133–138). Chandos Publishing. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-84334-513-8.50011-X

Heywood, J. S., Jirjahn, U., & Struewing, C. (2017). Locus of control and performance appraisal. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 142, 205–225.

Howell, J. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1993). Transformational leadership, transactional leadership, locus of control, and support for innovation: Key predictors of consolidated-business-unit performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(6), 891.

Infurna, F. J., Gerstorf, D., Ram, N., Schupp, J., & Wagner, G. G. (2011). Long-term antecedents and outcomes of perceived control. Psychology and Aging, 26(3), 559.

Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (2016). Learning leadership: The five fundamentals of becoming an exemplary leader. Wiley Online Library.

Kutanis, R. Ö., Mesci, M., & Övdür, Z. (2011). The Effects of Locus of Control on Learning Performance: A Case of an Academic Organization. Journal of Economic & Social Studies (JECOSS), 1(2).

Latham, G. P., & Pinder, C. C. (2004). Work Motivation Theory and Research at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century. Annual Review of Psychology, 56(1), 485–516. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142105

Maheshwari, S. K., & Yadav, J. (2018). Leadership development strategy: The missing links. Development and Learning in Organizations: An International Journal.

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Reaearch, (n.d.). List of public universities. Retrieved June 12, 2023, from https://gov.krd/mohe-en/publications/universities/

Nowicki, S. (2016). Choice or Chance: Understanding your locus of control and why it matters. Prometheus Books New York, NY.

NOWICKI, S., & DUKE, M. P. (2017). Foundations of Locus of Control. Perceived Control: Theory, Research, and Practice in the First 50 Years, 147.

Padmanabhan, S. (2021). The impact of locus of control on workplace stress and job satisfaction: A pilot study on private-sector employees. Current Research in Behavioral Sciences, 2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crbeha.2021.100026

Paik, Y., & Lee, E.-S. (2022). Individual Variation in Responding to Leader–Member Exchange Differentiation: The Moderating Roles of Internal Locus of Control and Self-Efficacy. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 29(4), 500–516.

Pushpinder Singh, G., & Kaur, A. (2018). The relationship of locus of control with leadership styles - A study of middle managers. Journal of Management Research and Analysis, 05(02).

Qurrahtulain, K., Bashir, T., Hussain, I., Ahmed, S., & Nisar, A. (2022). Impact of inclusive leadership on adaptive performance with the mediation of vigor at work and moderation of internal locus of control. Journal of Public Affairs, 22(1), e2380.

Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80(1), 1.

Roupnel, S., Rinfre, N., & Grenier, J. (2019). LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT: Three programs that maximize learning over time. Journal of Leadership Education, 18(2).

Saks, A. M., & Belcourt, M. (2006). An investigation of training activities and transfer of training in organizations. Human Resource Management: Published in Cooperation with the School of Business Administration, The University of Michigan and in Alliance with the Society of Human Resources Management, 45(4), 629–648.

Scott, G., Coates, H., & Anderson, M. (2008). Learning leaders in times of change: Academic leadership capabilities for Australian higher education.

Seidle, B., Fernandez, S., & Perry, J. L. (2016). Do leadership training and development make a difference in the public sector? A panel study. Public Administration Review, 76(4), 603–613.

Serin, O., Serin, N. B., & Şahin, F. S. (2009). Factors affecting the learning and studying strategies, and locus of control of the trainee teachers. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(1), 1127–1136.

Shannak, R. O., & Al-Taher, A. (2012). Factors affecting work locus of control: An Analytical and comparative Study. Jordan Journal of Business Administration, 8(2), 373–389.

Spector, P. E. (1988). Development of the Work Locus of Control Scale. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 61(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1988.tb00470.x

Spector, P. E., Cooper, C. L., Sanchez, J. I., O’Driscoll, M., Sparks, K., Bernin, P., Büssing, A., Dewe, P., Hart, P., & Lu, L. (2002). Locus of control and well-being at work: how generalizable are western findings? Academy of Management Journal, 45(2), 453–466.

Stajkovic, A. D., & Luthans, F. (1998). Self-efficacy and work-related performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), 240.

Tangatarova, S., & Gao, Y. (2021). Transformational leadership and patient safety in hospital: The roles of safety culture, decision-making capacity, and locus of control. International Journal of Research in Business and Social Science (2147-4478), 10(2), 106–122.

Turner, J. R., & Baker, R. (2017). Pedagogy, leadership, and leadership development. Performance Improvement, 56(9), 5–11.

Wallace, M. T., Barry, C. T., Zeigler‐Hill, V., & Green, B. A. (2012). Locus of control as a contributing factor in the relation between self‐perception and adolescent aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 38(3), 213–221.

أثر ممارسات التعلم القيادي على مسار تحكم العمل لدى رؤساء الاقسام في الجامعات الحكومية في اقليم كوردستان- العراق

الملخص:

تهدف الدراسة إلى تقصي أثر ممارسات تعلم القيادة على مسار تحكم العمل بين رؤساء الأقسام في الجامعات الحكومية في إقليم كوردستان-العراق. وشارك في الدراسة ما مجموعه 207 من رؤساء الأقسام من مختلف الجامعات الحكومية ، وتم استخدام استمارة استبيان مدارة ذاتياً لجمع البيانات الأولية من العينة المبحوثة. تم تحليل البيانات التي تم جمعها باستخدام برنامج SPSS للعلوم الاجتماعية. كشفت نتائج الدراسة عن وجود علاقة ارتباط إيجابية بين ممارسات التعلم القيادي و مسار التحكم في العمل. كما وكشفت نتائج تحليل ارتباط بيرسون أن جميع ممارسات تعلم القيادة الثلاثة (التعلم المدار ذاتياً، والقائمة على الممارسة ، والتعلم الرسمي) كانت مرتبطة بشكل كبير بمسار التحكم في العمل لدى العينة المبحوثة. كما ودعمت نتائج تحليل الانحدار هذه النتائج وكشفت أن الأبعاد الفرعية الثلاثة لممارسات تعلم القيادة تتنبأ بشكل كبير بمسار التحكم في مكان العمل، موضحة 24٪ من التباين الكلي. حيث أظهرت نتائج الدراسة أن التعلم القائم على الممارسة وممارسات التعلم الرسمية لها أقوى تأثير إيجابي على مسار التحكم في العمل ، بينما كان للتعلم المدار ذاتيًا تأثير ضعيف وغير مهم.

ومن ثم، يمكن القول أن هذه النتائج تؤكد على أهمية ممارسات تعلم القيادة في تعزيز مسار تحكم الافراد في العمل. ويُقترح أيضًا أن الاستثمار في برامج تعلم القيادة الرسمية والقائمة على الممارسة قد يؤثر بشكل إيجابي على مسار تحكم الفرد في مكان العمل، والذي يمكن أن يكون له آثار كبيرة على التطور الشخصي والمهني أيضاً.

الكلمات المفتاحية: مسار التحكم في العمل ، التعليم القيادي ، الجامعات الحكومية ، إقليم كوردستان العراق.

کاریگەریا پراکتیکێن فێربوونا سەرکردایەتیێ لەسەر رێره‌وا كونتروكرنا كارى ل ده‌ڤ سەرۆکی بەشه‌ان ل زانکۆیێ حکومی یێن هەرێما کوردستان - عێراق

پوختە:

ئارمانجا ڤى ڤه‌كولینی ديار كرنا کاریگەریا پراكتيزێت فێربونا سه‌ركردایه‌تیی لسه‌ر رێره‌وا كونترولكرنا كاری ل ناڤ سه‌روك به‌شین زانکۆیێن حكومى ل هه‌ریما كوردستانێ. ب گشتى 207 سه‌روك به‌شێن زانستى ژ زانكویێن حكومى یێن جیاواز پشكدارى دڤێ فه‌كولینێ دا كریه‌ بریكا به‌رسڤ دانا پرسیار نامه‌كێ كو هاتیه‌ بكارئینان ژبو كومكرنا داتایان. هه‌مى داتایێن هاتینه كومكرن بریكا به‌رنامێ SPSS یێ زانستێن كومه‌لایه‌تى هاتینه شیكرن. ئه‌نجامێن فه‌كولینێ دیار دكه‌ت كو په‌یوه‌ندیه‌كا ئه‌رێنی هه‌یه‌ دناڤبه‌را هه‌مى پراكتیكێن فێربونا سه‌ركردایه‌تیێ و رێره‌وا كونترولكرنا كارى دا.

. ئەنجامێن شیکارا پەیوەندیێن پیرسۆن دیاردكه‌ت كوهەر سێ پراکتیکێن فێربوونا سەرکردایەتیێ (فێربونا خۆئاڕاستەکرى، فێربونا لسەر بنەمای پراکتیک و فێربوونا فەرمی) پەیوەندییەکا بەرچاڤ هه‌یه‌ دگه‌ل ڕێڕەوا کۆنترۆڵکرنا کاری. ئەنجامێن شیکارا كارتێكرنێ پشتگیریێ ل ڤان ئه‌نجامان دكه‌ت ودیاردكه‌ت كوهه‌ر سێ پراکتیکێن فێربوونێ پێكفه‌ برێژا 24% کاریگەریى ل رێره‌وا كونترولكرنا كارى دكه‌ن. ودیار بو كو فێربوون لەسەر بنەمایێ پراکتیک و فێربوونا فەرمی بهێزترین کاریگەریا ئەرێنى ی لسەر ڕێڕەوا کۆنترۆڵکرنا کارى هەبوویه‌، دده‌مه‌كێ دا كو فێربوونا خۆئاڕاستەکرى کاریگەرییەكا لاواز و نه بەرچاڤ هەبوو.

ل ڤێرێ ئه‌م دشێن بێزین كو گرنگيا ئەنجامێن پراکتیکێن فێربوونا سەرکردایەتیێ د بلندكرنا ئاستێ کۆنترۆڵا تاکى لە جهێ كارى پشتڕاست بكه‌ین. هەروەسا پێشنیار دكه‌ین كو وه‌بەرهێنان دپروگرامێن فێربوونا سەرکردایەتیێ دا بهێته كرن كو دێ كاریگه‌ریه‌كا باش هه‌بیت لسەر گەشەپێدانا کەسی و پیشەیی.

په‌یڤێت سه‌ره‌كى: رێره‌وا كونتروگرنا كارى، فێربونا سەرکردایەتیێ، زانکۆیێن حکومى، هەرێمی کوردستانی عێراق.

* Corresponding Author.

This is an open access under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/)

	Demographic and personal factors	Categories	N	Percentage
1	Gender	Male	175	84.5
1	Gender	Female	32	15.5
3	Certificate	Ph.D.	133	64.3
3	Certificate	Master	74	35.7
4	Tenure	Less than 5 years	104	50.2
		5 to 10 years	63	30.4
		10 to 15 years	22	10.6
		More than 15 years	18	8.7
5	Scientific title	Assistant lecturer	46	22.2
		Lecturer	76	36.7
		Assistant Professor	73	35.3
		Professor	12	5.8
Total			207	100.0

Items	Mean	Std. Deviation
Locus of Control	3.3753	0.4250
Self-Managed Learning	3.7923	0.6036
Practice-Based Learning	3.7930	0.5465
Formal Learning	3.7398	0.6548
Overall Leadership Learning	3.7750	0.5257

Variables	Self-Managed Learning	Practice-Based Learning	Formal Learning	Locus of Control
Self-Managed Learning	1.000
Practice-Based Learning	0.638**	1.000
Formal Learning	0.582**	0.719**	1.000
Locus of Control	0.360**	0.453**	0.465**	1.000

	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Sig.
Model	0.497^a	0.247	0.236	0.000
a. Dependent Variable: Locus of Control
b. Predictors: (Constant), Formal Learning, Self-Managed Learning, Practice-Based Learning

Model	Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
Regression	9.206	3	3.069	22.242	0.000
Residual	28.009	203	.138
Total	37.215	206

	B	Std. Error	t. value	Sig.
constant	1.906	0.192	9.911	0.000
Self-Managed Learning	0.045	0.057	0.786	0.433
Practice-Based Learning	0.169	0.074	2.287	0.023
Formal Learning	0.176	0.058	3.007	0.003

No.	Hypotheses	Results
H1	There will be a positive association between leadership learning practices and employees' perception of control over their work.	Confirmed
H1a	Employees who engage in self-managed learning activities will have a stronger internal locus of control in their work compared to those who do not engage in such activities.	Confirmed
H1b	Employees who participate in practice-based learning activities will perceive a greater sense of control over their work compared to those who do not participate in such activities.	Confirmed
H1C	Employees who participate in formal leadership development will report higher levels of internal locus of control in their work than those who do not participate in such experiences.	Confirmed
H2	Leadership learning practices will collectively explain variance in employees' work locus of control.	Confirmed
H2a	Self-managed learning will positively affect work locus of control.	Rejected
H2b	Practice-based learning will positively affect work locus of control.	Confirmed
H2c	Formal leadership development will positively affect the work locus of control.	Confirmed